By that time rice was being extensively grow under the subak system. From what can be ascertained from archeological, literary and oral evidence, the indigenous people of Bali came into increasing contact with people from Java around the A. It is not known whether people that introduced these traditions were Indians or Javanese or both. Jukka O. Archaeological finds include bronze artefacts from before the present era. Miettinen wrote: "In the early centuries A.
Bali gradually came under the strong influence of the Indianised Hindu-Buddhist culture. Bali was also influenced from time to time by Chinese culture, as can be seen in architecture and the visual arts, and in theatre, where certain mask types and plots indicate Chinese influences.
The nearby island of Java played a decisive role in the development of Balinese culture. Java often overran its tiny neighbour, and Bali did not have its own king until the tenth century.
In the late tenth century a Balinese prince married a princess from East Java, which led to a brief union of the kingdoms of Bali and East Java. The island of Bali, however, was never wholly Javanised; it continued to develop its own type of Hindu culture, which, unlike that in Java, managed to retain its integrity against the spread of Islam, which came to dominate Javanese culture in the fourteenth century.
By the 11th century, Hindu and Javanese influences became very important to Bali. Airlangga, the son of a Balinese king and a Javanese queen, united Bali with an eastern Javanese kingdom. Following this time, there were many reciprocal political and artistic ideas that formed.
As Islam swept through Indonesia, many Hindus fled to Bali, where Hindu and Indonesian culture and customs mix in an interesting fashion. The island abounds in cultural activities and performances and shopping opportunities. Bali is When Airlanggha died in the midth century, Bali remained quite autonomous until , when East Javanese king Kertanegara conquered Bali and ruled over it from his home in Java.
Kertanegara was assassinated in , and Bali was once again liberated, until when it was brought back into Javanese control by Hindu-Javanese general Gajah Mada, of the Majapahit empire. From the 11th century to the 15th century, Bali endured as a Hindu kingdom while the rest of Indonesia became by Islamicized or Christianized.
Periodically Bali was dominated by other kingdoms. It in turn influenced other islands, namely Lombok, and enslaved some of its own people. For three centuries Bali was mostly at least semi-independent and intermittently ruled by the East Java-based Majapahit kingdom, which was conquered by Muslim forces in When the Majapahit dynasty was conquered members of the Hindu nobility, artists, and priests fled to Bali, bringing with them a new wave of Javanese culture.
Early contacts with Islamic Java were few, and Balinese culture was able to develop its intrinsic features undisturbed by outside influences. Bali became powerful enough to take control of neighboring Lombok, as well as pieces of East Java. In , a ship full of Dutchmen accidentally landed on Bali. It is said the Europeans fell so deeply in love with the place they stayed for two years, and when it was time to leave some refused to go. Bali at that time was regarded to be at its peak. The king of the island had wives.
He traveled around in a chariot pulled by two white buffalo and had at his disposal a retinue of 40 dwarves. The Dutch seamen were the first Europeans to land in Bali. The Netherlands had no real interest in Bali until the s. In the Dutch returned with colonization on their minds, having already had vast expanses of Indonesia under their control since the s. The Dutch sent troops into northern Bali, and by , they had sided with the Sasak people of Lombok to defeat the Balinese.
By , all Balinese principalities were under Dutch control. In the first Dutch officials arrived on the island. Over the following decades, often using salvage claims over shipwrecks to enter Balinese territory, the Dutch took more and more control of the island and pushed the Balinese kingdom into the south, where it put up military resistence to colonialism.
The Dutch put pressure on the Balinese rulers by siding with their adversaries, the Sasaks of Lombok. In , the Dutch invaded Bali and mounted a naval bombardment of the island after the Balinese refused to pay compensation for ransacking a Chinese ship. When it became clear the Balinese royals could no longer hold off the Dutch, they chose to die rather than submit to colonial rule. Under the now legendary puputan , the royal family ordered their palaces to be set alight. Then clad in white and armed only with spears they and some of their supporters hurled themselves at the Dutch.
Maybe a thousand died. The Dutch gained controlled of the island. Court life on Bali largely died under the Dutch.
For some people, the defeat of the Balinese marked the passing of an era. After World War I, a sense of Indonesian Nationalism began to grow, leading to the declaration of the national language in , as Bahasa Indonesia. In the s, Westerners first promoted Bali as a vacationer's paradise. The former Dutch territory was a colonial playground for the Netherlands Indies, which extended from Indonesia to Malaysia.
Puputan is a Balinese term for a mass ritual suicide in preference to facing the humiliation of surrender. Notable puputans in the history of Bali occurred in and , when the Balinese were being subjugated by the Dutch.
The force managed to move inland without much resistance, and arrived in the city of Kesiman on 20 September There, the local king, a vassal of the king of Badung, had already been killed by his own priest, as he had refused to lead an armed resistance against the Dutch. The palace was in flames and the city was deserted.
The force marched to Denpasar, Bali, as if in a dress parade. They approached the royal palace, noting smoke rising from the puri and hearing a wild beating of drums coming from within the palace walls.
Upon their reaching the palace, a silent procession emerged, led by the Raja on a palanquin carried by four bearers. The Raja was dressed in traditional white cremation garments, wore magnificent jewelry, and carried a ceremonial kris. The other people in the procession consisted of the Raja's officials, guards, priests, wives, children and retainers, all of whom were similarly attired. They had received the rites of death, were dressed in white, and had had their ritual kris blessed.
When the procession was a hundred paces from the Dutch force, they halted and the Raja stepped down from the palanquin and signalled a priest, who plunged his dagger into the Raja's breast. The rest of the procession began killing themselves and others. Women mockingly threw jewelry and gold coins at the troops. A 'stray gunshot' and an 'attack by lance and spear' prompted the Dutch to open fire with rifles and artillery.
As more people emerged from the palace, the mounds of corpses rose higher and higher. The whole procession numbered hundreds, and is said to have been over 1, people in all. It was mown down by Dutch gunfire. Alternative accounts describe that the Dutch first opened fire on the Balinese mass moving outside of the palace gate, only equipped with traditional krises, spears and shields, and that survivors killed themselves, or had themselves killed by their followers according to the dictates of the puputan.
The soldiers stripped the corpses of the valuables and sacked the ruins of the burned palace. The palace of Denpasar was razed to the ground. The same afternoon, similar events occurred in the nearby palace of Pemecutan, where the co-ruler Gusti Gede Ngurah resided.
The Dutch let the nobility at Pemecutan kill themselves, and proceeded with the looting. The massacre is remembered locally as the "Badung Puputan" and is glorified as an example of resistance to foreign aggression. A huge bronze monument was erected on the central square of Denpasar, where the royal palace used to stand, glorifying Balinese resistance in the Puputan.
The Dutch force continued to the kingdom of Tabanan, where the king Gusti Ngurah Agung and his son fled. They surrendered to the Dutch, and attempted to negotiate a settlement to become a regency of the Netherlands.
The Dutch only offered them exile to nearby Madura or Lombok, and they preferred to kill themselves puputan in prison two days later. Their palace was plundered and razed by the Dutch. The intervention was triggered by a Balinese revolt against a Dutch attempt to impose an opium monopoly in their favour.
The Raja of Karangasem opposed the monopoly, leading to Balinese riots in the capital of Klungkung. Riots also erupted in Gelgel, when the Balinese killed a Javanese opium dealer. The Dutch sent troops to quell the riots. In Gelgel, they killed Balinese, forcing the Raja to flee to Klungkung. In a final confrontation on 18 April , Dewa Agung Jambe, the Raja of Klungung, accompanied by followers, made a desperate sortie out of his Palace, clad in white and armed with a legendary kris supposed to wreak havoc on the enemy according to a prophecy.
The kris failed to fulfill the desired outcome, and the Raja was instead shot by a Dutch bullet. Immediately, the six wives of the king resorted to puputan, killing themselves with their own kris, soon followed by the other Balinese in the procession. The Japanese were later defeated, and the Dutch returned to attempt to regain control of Bali and Indonesia.
However, in , Indonesia was declared independent by its very first president, Sukarno. The Dutch government ceded, and Indonesia was officially recognized as an independent country in After the Japanese occupation of Bali in World War II, there was fighting between those who supported Indonesian independence and those who favored a continuation of Dutch colonial rule.
One Balinese resistance movement, in the tradition of pupatan chose to be wiped out rather than surrender at the Battle of Margarana.
The s was a tragic time in Bali. The beginning of mass tourism was heralded by the opening of an international airport in the late s. The tourism boom on Bali began in the s and gained momentum through the s and s and was not slowed until the Asian financial crisis in the late s and the Bali Bombing in In the early s, dozens of new roads were built.
Many of the developers were friends or cronies of President Suharto and much of the profits from the , visitors a years ended up in the pockets of non-Balinese. Taxes from hotels, restaurants and souvenir shop still go to Jakarta. Entire villages were destroyed by layers of ash and flows of hot mud that made it all the way to the sea.
Hard rains after the eruption exacerbated the problems, creating landslides and lahars. Roads were closed off, villages were swept away and more people suffered, this time from lack of food. The Balinese call Mount Agung the "navel of the world. During the eruption a gate built to honor president Sukarno was destroyed.
This was seen as a symbol of corruption in the government, which was soon ousted. Some people died when a pyroclastic flow an incandescent cloud of volcanic debris raced down the mountain through the in the town of Subagan. Nearly all the inhabitants of the village of Lebih were burnt to death or suffocated by clouds of hot gas.
Boiling mud and ash obliterated other towns, where children made strange wailing sounds as they choked to death.
Some areas strewn with dog eaten bodies were still too hot to enter weeks after the eruption. Days became night as far away as Java when clouds of cinder and ash blew over and drinking water was in short in supply as rivers and streams became a silty grey mess. Besakih, Bali's most sacred shrine is located right beneath the volcano. Even though there were dangers of new eruptions and the Governor of Bali forbade people from visiting the temple, thousands went anyway to celebrate an April full moon ceremony.
Offerings to the gods included plaited palm fonds, bowls of rice, fried cakes, barbecued fowl, squat bananas and spiny durians. Some ceremonies are climaxed with women picking up burning coals in their bare hands. After the eruption many Balinese moved to other parts of Indonesia. Two leaders and hundreds were killed during the anti-Communist purge after the failed coup. Many Balinese were involved in the killing as Communism was viewed as a threat to the traditional Balinese way of life.
Bali bombing site October 12, a bombing on the Indonesian holiday island of Bali killed people, 88 of them Australians, and injured more than , many of them suffering from terrible burns. The attack took place at Kuta Beach, a popular resort with foreign tourist in Bali. It was the worst terrorist attack since the September 11th attacks and brought Indonesia to the forefront of the war on terrorism. The location was no accident. Many of the dead -- including 88 Australians, 38 Indonesians, 26 Britons and 7 Americans -- had been fleeing the first blast.
The Balinese call it their ground zero. Two bombs went off almost simultaneously. It killed eight people and was carried in the a vest of a suicide bomber. The main bomb went off seconds later in front of the Sari Club on Jalan Legian, the main street in Kuta.
A third bomb went of at the U. The main bomb was made of one-ton of ammonium nitrate fertilizer, potassium chloride and other chemicals and at least 50 kilograms of chlorate explosives. These were placed inside filing cabinets in a white van parked by a suicide bomber in front of the Sari Club. The Dutch were intent on adding the whole of Bali to their colonial ambitions and set about its capture. It took separate and simultaneous wars from to , and the actions of various Balinese kings using the colonizers to advance their own local ends, for the Dutch to take control of even just the north of the island.
And it was not until the wars of the rajahs, from to , that the Dutch finally extended their rule to the east. Karangasem and Lombok fell in and finally the Rajah of Gianyar, in a ploy where self interest took precedence over island sovereignty, was convinced by the new Lords of Ubud, to make peace with the Dutch.
The south refused to yield to Dutch rule and while some of the older guard preached peace, they were overruled by a group of headstrong young princes who defeated the Dutch in a surprise attack. Needless to say, the Dutch did not take this lightly and a larger force was dispatched to Bali to make a stand against the stubbornly resistant and proud southern kingdoms of Tabanan, Klungkung, and Badung.
And yet, the Dutch were still seeking justification for an all-out assault. In , a Chinese schooner struck the reef near Sanur. The Dutch government made what were essentially unreasonable demands for compensation, which was refused by the Rajah of Badung, with the support of Tabanan and Klungkung.
A dispute over the rights to plunder the cargo ships traditionally held by the Balinese presented the Dutch with the reasoning needed to launch a new attack. In the full force of the Dutch navy rocked up at Sanur, initiating the Badung War. After blockading the southern ports and having had various ultimatums ignored, the Dutch mounted large naval and ground assaults and in September they marched on the palace of Badung.
At the palace, the Dutch were not met by expected resistance, but instead by a silent procession with the rajah at the lead dressed in white cremation garb, armed only with a kris, followed by his supporters.
His march stopped some paces from the Dutch and then a priest plunged the kris in to his chest. The rest of the procession followed suit and proceeded to either kill themselves or others in the procession, all of whom had voluntarily entered into a rite known as puputan.
Sensing certain defeat at the guns of the heavily armed Dutch, the noble Balinese decided not to suffer the ignominy of defeat or surrender but rather had their death rites applied and took part in a ritual mass suicide.
Despite the Dutch pleas for them to surrender, this puputan ended in the deaths of an estimated 4, Balinese men, women, and children. That same afternoon a similar event took place at the palace of Pemecutan. The Rajah of Tabanan and his son surrendered, but both committed suicide 2 days later in a Dutch prison. The last remaining regency, Klungkung, brokered a peace deal.
Not surprisingly, the atrocity of the puputan garnered worldwide condemnation and even a member of the Dutch Upper House of Parliament labeled the scandal the "extermination of a heroic race.
The deal that had been brokered with Klungkung fell apart when the Dutch attempted to take monopoly control of the opium trade. Riots erupted in Gianyar and the Dutch sent the troops back in, forcing the rajah to flee to Klungkung. He attempted an all-out attack, initially by himself, armed only with a ceremonial kris believed to wreak havoc on the enemy. He was brought down by a single bullet. His six wives, seeing the death of their beloved, turned their kris on themselves and committed suicide.
They were then followed by the others in the procession coming out of the palace. With this last puputan, the Dutch could finally claim victory over the island. The victory proved to be spiritually and morally empty and the Dutch governors were able to exercise little influence. Local control over religion and culture generally remained intact. For most commoners, life went on whether they were being ruled by their new colonial masters or their previous rajahs. The advent of tourism and travel after the Great War brought new influences and greater worldwide attention to Bali.
Musicologist Colin McPhee, in his book A House in Bali, fostered the Western image of Bali as "an enchanted land of aesthetes at peace with themselves and nature. Dutch rule over Bali came later than in other parts of the East Indies, such as Java and Maluku, and it was never as well established. After Japan's Pacific surrender in August , the Dutch attempted to return to Indonesia, including Bali, and to reinstate their prewar colonial administration.
But Indonesia and Bali resisted, this time armed with Japanese weapons. One of the many heroes of the time was the wartime resistance leader Colonel I Gusti Ngurah Rai who spent the war years tormenting the Japanese. His death in an almost suicidal attack, considered the final puputan, is another footnote in the heroic history of Bali and its warriors.
The Dutch tried to maintain their colonial rule for another 4 years before finally conceding that they no longer had a role as masters in the East Indies. The Republic of Indonesia that had been originally constituted by Sukarno and Mohammed Hatta, in the immediate aftermath of WWII, now included Bali and the other 12 island states the Dutch had attempted to retain.
On December 29, , with the inclusion of these last states in the Republic of the United States of Indonesia, the curtain came down on the Dutch East Indies.
The tentative federation, led by Sukarno and Mohammed Hatta, attempted to consolidate this 17,island nation. The road to peace and prosperity was not without its troubles. Sukarno, who had been a revolutionary, moved from democracy to autocracy and on to authoritarianism.
Regional and factional problems led him eventually, in July , to dissolve the assembly and assume full dictatorial powers. Increasingly, Sukarno was becoming pro-Communist and received aid from Communist sources. He made little secret of his desire to make amends for centuries of Western colonialism in Southeast Asia and he was perhaps driven more by this than any actual Communist sympathies.
In , he went as far as to make a stand against the formation of the federation of Malaysia, seeing it as a puppet for continued British rule. He was ultimately unsuccessful and failed to bring the disputed, now Malay lands, of northern Borneo into the Indonesian Republic. The economic cost of this failure on the fledgling economy coupled with his alienation from the West and resulting lack of financial support when it was most needed, created hyperinflation.
The resulting social unrest and his failing health weakened his iron grip on the country. Matters came to a head on the night of September 30, , when eight senior generals were taken from their houses, supposedly by a group of Communist renegade army divisions, and either summarily executed or taken to Halim airport where they met the same fate. The later justification that these actions were taken to prevent an army-led coup did not convince many. A certain General Suharto convinced the other surviving generals to plan their own countermove and in a surprisingly easy manner, regained control of the military faction.
Sukarno stayed in power but Suharto had emerged as a major political figure. The backlash against the Communists in after the attempted coup is one of the bloodiest in Indonesian history. Bali was the scene of some of the worst atrocities, where mobs rounded up suspected Communists and sometimes just clubbed them to death.
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